The Universal Periodic Review: Iran, Iraq and Egypt

Introduction

At the United Nations in Geneva, the 48th cycle of the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) just came to an end. During this specialised procedure at the Human Rights Council, member states submit themselves to a thorough peer review of the human rights situation in their country. The national reports are presented during an interactive dialogue with the other member states, following which the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review will draft a list of recommendations given during the dialogue with a view towards improving the human rights situation in the respective countries.

During this 48th cycle, the national human rights situation of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq and Egypt was discussed. While other member states in the Human Rights Council noted progress since the UPR session, many areas of concern still prevailed.

Iran

On Friday, January 24th, the Islamic Republic of Iran was the first to present its national report to the Member States in the Human Rights Council. While the delegation highlighted that the country had made an effort to cooperate with various human rights mechanisms since its last UPR, its main concern concerns the use of unilateral coercive measures (UCMs) targeting the Iranian government. The Islamic Republic of Iran sees itself as a victim of economic assault, particularly at the hands of the United States and its Western allies, who, according to the national delegation, are violating international law through their imposition of UCMs. The delegation further claimed that the imposed UCMs had had devastating consequences for Iranian businesses and Iranians’ access to finances and was a violation of the fundamental rights of all Iranian citizens. Hence, the main priority of the current government, according to the national report, is the mitigation of the effects of UCMs through the allocation of state budget.

Another priority detailed in the national report is the combating of terrorism, which, so far, has resulted in the death of about 23,000 citizens. To this end, a new terrorist act has been put into place by the legislator. Another new law that has been adopted since Iran’s last UPR aims to improve conditions in prisons and detention centres to safeguard the dignity of inmates and detainees. Additionally, a law criminalising hate speech against minorities was listed as a new legislative achievement, despite the delegation emphasising that the Islamic Republic of Iran does not have any ethnic minorities but rather consists of different ethnic groups by default.

Lastly, the national report highlighted a series of measures aimed at improving the situation of women in the country and achieving gender equality. It mentioned the election of 14 women into the national parliament, the appointment of four women as ministers within the current government, and the appointment of 1006 female judges. Beyond representation in public organs, the government’s seventh development plan foresees the removal of obstacles to the growth of women, reducing the gender gap in education and increasing the number of women in university. The national report also highlighted an increased life expectancy of women, a significant reduction of maternal birth mortality rates, and an increased involvement of women in economic life, facilitated through a new fund for women-headed households and the support of women entrepreneurs, resulting in an increased number of women in businesses and managerial positions.

While many Member States in the Human Rights Council commended developmental efforts by the Iranian government, particularly those pertaining to children, concerns about the human rights situation in the country were voiced by even more. Multiple countries recommended that Iran ratify the Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment (CAT), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), and the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). They also recommended granting unhindered access to any special mechanism and fact-finding missions.
The majority of Member States further asked to introduce a moratorium on the death penalty with a view to abolishing it, especially for minors. Many also recommended the criminalisation of gender-based violence and all forms of violence against women, including marital rape, domestic violence, and honour killings. An often voiced concern regarded the freedom of expression, assembly, and association. In that vein, it was recommended to ensure that human rights defenders enjoy freedom of expression in the country, to end practices of arbitrary arrest and detention, stop the harassment and intimidation of human rights defenders and journalists, stop unfair trials, and continue ceasing the censorship of media, both online and offline. Particularly, many states showed concern over human rights violations during peaceful protests, such as the Women Rights Freedom protests, and called for the release of all those arbitrarily detained.

Other recommendations included the full and effective investigation and prosecution of human rights violations on Iranian territory. Some Member States also highly recommended raising the recently lowered legal age of marriage for girls to 18. Another frequent piece of advice was to ensure freedom of religion by combating discrimination against minorities, especially the Baha’i, who should be recognised as a minority. A few countries also recommended decriminalising same-sex relations between consenting adults. Lastly, with regard to the advancement of gender equality, a number of recommendations included repealing all discriminatory laws and policies against women, freeing women detained for not wearing a hijab, abolishing mandatory veiling to ensure equal participation in society of women through ceasing any forms of discrimination, and disbanding the morality police.

Iraq

On Monday, January 27th, the report on the fourth cycle of the UPR of Iraq was presented. The country’s representatives reaffirmed their commitment to the UPR and showcased their cooperation with international mechanisms of the United Nations by extending a standing invitation to visit their country and informing other Member States that Iraq is currently up to date with its periodic reports to the treaty bodies. The Iraqi delegation also announced their country’s candidacy for membership of the Human Rights Council from 2026 to 2028 and reiterated their belief in the UPR as a necessary tool for constructive dialogue.

The delegation explained different measures carried out by Iraq to improve its human rights situation and achieve the SDGs, the Iraq 2030 Plan. They detailed measures to solve housing problems, increase social services such as health and education, especially for the most vulnerable, introduce measures to end overcrowding and poor prison conditions, and vocational training programmes to promote reintegration. The plan foresees measures to eliminate human rights violations in prisons, as well as the development of the legal aid law and an independent judicial system and procedural laws in accordance with international standards.

With regard to minority rights, the presentation of the national report affirmed that the constitution recognises freedom of religion, the right to practice it freely and the free use of minority languages. The report highlighted the measures taken to return people, especially those belonging to minorities who have been displaced by Daesh, if they wish to do so, but also stressed the existence of aid to help them stay in the places where they took refuge. To this end, Iraq has introduced a new law on Yezidi survivors, addressing genocide and crimes against humanity. The country has also adopted a new law on crimes against humanity and discrimination, which criminalises hate speech and racism.

The national report of Iraq further highlighted various efforts aimed at including and representing the province of Kurdistan and the Kurdish people. A number of legislative and executive measures were adopted to combat their discrimination and ensure equal access to education. Lastly, the report also details two new draft laws on the protection of children and domestic violence, as well as the third action plan developed for the 2025 elections, emphasising women’s economic empowerment.

During the peer review, other states almost universally commended Iraq on the new Yezidi survivors law. As for the recommendations of the other Member States in the Human Rights Council, the most common were the suspension of executions, the implementation of a moratorium on the death penalty to abolish it definitively, and the ratification of the second Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, the Optional Protocol to the CAT and the Rome Statute. Some countries further recommended that Iraq withdraw its reservations to CEDAW. Additionally, many countries called for measures to ensure the peaceful assembly and release of detained journalists. The respect for their work as well as that of human rights defenders, and the removal of any restrictions on freedom of expression and internet access were recommended to that extent.

Furthermore, many Member States recommended the criminalisation of all forms of gender-based violence, including domestic violence, honour killings and marital rape, addressing concerns over the fact that one in three Iraqi women experiences sexual violence. Similar recommendations pertained to the strengthening of gender equality laws and policies, the removal of barriers to girls’ education and the amendment of personal status laws to eliminate discrimination against women and girls. It was also recommended to intensify measures against human trafficking, especially of women and children. Some countries also recommended improving the health and education system throughout the country and making available the legal and financial means to reclaim areas occupied by Daesh to restore state control. Similarly, many Member States also recommended establishing a transition plan to guarantee the safe return of all internally displaced persons. Lastly, a few countries voiced concerns regarding the killings of members of the LGBTQ community and hence recommended the decriminalisation of same-sex relations between consenting adults.

Egypt

On Tuesday, January 28th, the delegation from Egypt presented its national report to the peer review at the Human Rights Council. The report laid down the current national human rights strategy for 2021-2026. The strategy establishes specialised human rights units within various ministries, ensures the independence of the national councils and envisages new mechanisms for complaint procedures. In addition to the human rights strategy, a number of other strategies were presented that aimed at tackling more specific issues pertaining to and intersecting with human rights in Egypt.

The various strategies include a new national strategy on human trafficking, population, and development. The latter aims to balance population and development by promoting reproductive health, empowering women, investing in youth, increasing education opportunities, raising awareness of demographic issues, and realising social and economic well-being for all citizens. The national report further detailed a new integrated action plan to prevent torture and cruel, degrading or inhuman treatment. Another newly adopted strategy is the ‘National Strategy for the Empowerment of Egyptian Women 2030’. The presenting delegation highlighted that women make up 27% of representatives in the House and 40% in the Senate. As part of the strategy, the already achieved improvements emphasised were increased penalties for FGM, harassment, and bullying.

In addition to the new strategies, the national report also highlighted that the anti-corruption strategy, which had already been deployed after Egypt’s last UPR, is currently in its third phase. Lastly, the report places great emphasis on the topic of migration and refugees. Accordingly, Egypt is currently hosting a substantial number of refugees and asylum seekers, who amount to 10.5 million foreigners from 62 different nationalities. The Egyptian representatives reiterated their willingness to cooperate with the UNHCR in this regard.

The other Member States in the Human Rights Council almost unanimously commended the new national human rights strategy; many also showed much satisfaction with the increased protection of children’s rights. Yet, a few areas of concern remained on which numerous recommendations were issued. Several countries reminded Egypt to submit its still outstanding reports under the ICCPR and ICESCR review procedures. A common recommendation was also to ratify the Optional Protocols to CAT, CEDAW, ICESCR and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), as well as the second Optional Protocol to the ICCPR, the ILO Convention on Violence and Harassment, and the Convention on Enforced Disappearances. Some Member States here recommended specifically the creation of an accountability mechanism for enforced disappearances. In particular, Egypt’s neighbouring MENA states commended its handling of irregular migration flows while simultaneously calling for future cooperation on the matter.

Another common recommendation was to establish a moratorium on the death penalty with a view to abolishing it, especially for minors. What was also mentioned by a number of countries was to take steps towards eliminating all forms of discrimination against women and ensure their unimpeded access to employment, along with continued efforts to combat gender-based violence. Specifically, various countries recommended the criminalisation of violence against women, including marital rape.

A shared concern among Member States pertained to the situation of human rights defenders in the country. An often-iterated recommendation here was to ensure a safe environment for human rights defenders, journalists and media, to ensure freedom of expression, association and assembly, online and offline, and to refrain from arrests under anti-terrorism legislation while also releasing prisoners incarcerated for exercising their freedom of expression. In particular, several countries recommended reviewing the definition of terrorism in criminal law and harmonising it with human rights standards to foreclose abuse. Many also called for lifting restrictions against civil society and social media platforms. Lastly, it was also recommended to ensure the investigation and effective prosecution of human rights violations and to ensure accountability for cases of torture.